Each essay is worth 20 points. I do not like to suggest a specific length for each essay because the length of your response should be related to the sophistication of your knowledge. That is, if you are well-prepared you should see complexity in the question that would demand a sophisticated, and longer, response. A sophisticated response will necessarily be longer than a less sophisticated response. Question 1: As you respond to this question, be sure to draw on material that describes the nature and use of schemas from Fisk & Taylor and from our discussion of the relationship between cognition and communication. What are schemas? Describe their essential character? From where do our schemas originate? What social and communicative functions do schemas serve? Some have argued that schemas can be useful tools. On the other hand, Walter Lippmann in 1922 seems to allude to schemas when he says, “We are all captives of the pictures in our head–our belief that the world we have experienced is the world that really exists.” Some have argued that schemas may have deleterious consequences for our perception and our social behavior. Perhaps Lippmann might say that we are captives of the schemas we construct and hold in memory. Which position do you hold? Perhaps the answer to this question depends on the existence of moderating factors or the character of the schemas in question. Explicitly describe your position on the value of schemas. Then, be sure to support your position with evidence (in the form of research findings) that you have learned from our text and lectures/discussions. If you have not done so, describe how the concept of schemas has been used to explain sophisticated forms of communicative behavior in the field of communication (specifically, Constructivism). Be sure to introduce the concepts of interpersonal construct differentiation, interpersonal construct abstractness, listener adapted persuasion, reflection enhancing discipline, and comforting communication. How do the findings from Constructivism help us to understand our use of schemas as described by Fisk & Taylor? question 3 Use the following elements to construct a social situation that you analyze with Kelley’s Covariation Model. Assume that you are observing and attempting to explain the behavior of ‘Bill.’ What could explain the way Bill (the Creative Director at an advertising agency) treats Don (an artist at his advertising agency)? Describe your situation in detail before you apply the model to that situation. The more thorough your description of the situation the better will be the application of the model. Construct your example (and this situation) around the elements of the Covariation Model. Based on your application of this model, what kind of attribution should be made to the actor’s behavior in your hypothetical situation? I provided you with visual representations of different forms of information evident in the Kelley’s model. DO NOT use these visual aids in your essay. They were intended to help you learn Kelley’s Covariation Model. Your goal is to demonstrate your understanding of this model by describing and analyzing this model. You may use the figures on a piece of ‘scratch paper’ but do not incorporate them into your response. 5 attachments Slide 1 of 5 attachment_1 attachment_1 attachment_2 attachment_2 attachment_3 attachment_3 attachment_4 attachment_4 attachment_5 attachment_5 Schemas Abstract Declarative Knowledge Structures Schemas Defined and Previewed ? Definition ? Basic Principles Categorical Basis of Schemas ? Types of Schemas ? Person Schemas ? ? ? Traits Person in Situation Episodes Goal Schemas Types of Schemas ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Types of Schemas ? ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Role Schemas ? ? Achieved Roles Ascribed Roles Types of Schemas ? ? ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Role Schemas Scripts ? ? ? Props Roles Sequence Rules Characteristics of Associative Networks/Schemas ? Memory is networks of concepts that have been associated. ? Memory is abstract. ? Memory is semantic/declarative. Characteristics: Information is stored as propositions. Professor Introduced Speaker Characteristics: Information is stored as associations. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics: Links are strengthened each time activated Donald assertive adventuresome intelligen t outgoing Characteristics: Automatic Spreading Activation. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics: The More a particular association is made the stronger it becomes. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics continued ? Strengthening links creates alternative retrieval routes. Uses of Schemas ? Encoding ? Recall ? Inferences Uses of Schemas–Encoding ? ? We label people based on snap judgments We label people on the basis of group membership ? Out-group Homogeneity Principle Uses of Schemas–Recall ? ? ? Recall schema-relevant information more easily Self schemas & recall of information about other people Strain toward consistency in: ? ? Well established schemas Highly developed schemas Correlation between strain toward consistency and schema development High Strain Consistency Low Low High Schema Development Uses of Schemas–Inferences ? In-group Favortism ? Out-group Polarization ? Black Sheep Effect Factors Influencing Schema Use ? Primacy ? Salience ? Accessibility ? Mood Primacy Information Caring Assertive Good Advice Pushy Opinionated Mean Good Comforter Hurtful DAN Thoughtful Factors Influencing Schema Use (cont) ? ? ? Power Structure of Schemas Individual Differences ? ? ? Attributional Complexity Need for Cognition Cognitive Complexity Schemas Abstract Declarative Knowledge Structures Schemas Defined and Previewed ? Definition ? Basic Principles Categorical Basis of Schemas ? Types of Schemas ? Person Schemas ? ? ? Traits Person in Situation Episodes Goal Schemas Types of Schemas ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Types of Schemas ? ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Role Schemas ? ? Achieved Roles Ascribed Roles Types of Schemas ? ? ? ? Person Schemas Self Schemas Role Schemas Scripts ? ? ? Props Roles Sequence Rules Characteristics of Associative Networks/Schemas ? Memory is networks of concepts that have been associated. ? Memory is abstract. ? Memory is semantic/declarative. Characteristics: Information is stored as propositions. Professor Introduced Speaker Characteristics: Information is stored as associations. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics: Links are strengthened each time activated Donald assertive adventuresome intelligen t outgoing Characteristics: Automatic Spreading Activation. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics: The More a particular association is made the stronger it becomes. Donald assertive outgoing adventuresome intelligent Characteristics continued ? Strengthening links creates alternative retrieval routes. Uses of Schemas ? Encoding ? Recall ? Inferences Uses of Schemas–Encoding ? ? We label people based on snap judgments We label people on the basis of group membership ? Out-group Homogeneity Principle Uses of Schemas–Recall ? ? ? Recall schema-relevant information more easily Self schemas & recall of information about other people Strain toward consistency in: ? ? Well established schemas Highly developed schemas Correlation between strain toward consistency and schema development High Strain Consistency Low Low High Schema Development Uses of Schemas–Inferences ? In-group Favortism ? Out-group Polarization ? Black Sheep Effect Factors Influencing Schema Use ? Primacy ? Salience ? Accessibility ? Mood Primacy Information Caring Assertive Good Advice Pushy Opinionated Mean Good Comforter Hurtful DAN Thoughtful Factors Influencing Schema Use (cont) ? ? ? Power Structure of Schemas Individual Differences ? ? ? Attributional Complexity Need for Cognition Cognitive Complexity Attribution Theory Some Models Assumptions of Covariation Model Multiple Observations of Behavior ? People Act as Naïve Scientists ? Behavior Varies: ? Who is behaving ? The entities in the situation ? Modality (Time) ? Elements of Covariation Model Person (P) ? Time (T) ? Behavior ? Third Party Actors (a) ? Entity (e1), secondary entities (e2, e3) ? Types of Information in Covariation Model ? Consistency ? Distinctiveness ? Consensus Consistency Information P High eT1 eT2 eT3 P Low eT1 eT2 eT3 Distinctiveness Information P Low e1 e2 e3 P High e1 e2 e3 Consensus Information P a1 e a2 a3 High Low Types of Attributions ? Actor ? Entity ? Actor/Entity Interaction Causal Schemata Model ? Multiple Sufficient Causal Scheme ? Multiple Necessary Causal Scheme Schacter’s Theory of Emotional Lability ? Extends Attributions to the Study of Self Perceptions ? Emotional Reactions are forms of Arousal ? Arousal Subject to Multiple Interpretations Bem’s Theory of Self Perception ? Use the same mental processes to understand self that we use to understand others Use external cues to explain internal states ? Like Schacter, we look to our environment to make self attributions. ? Rotter’s Locus of Control Theory ? Internals ? Externals Conflict Strategies ? Passive-indirect ? Distributive ? Integrative ? Links to LOC theory? Refinements in Attribution Theory ? Linking Attributions with Cognitive Structures ? Linking Communication with Causal Attributions Bias ? Fundamental Attribution Error ? Reasons ? Stage Model Stage Model for FAE ? Stage 1: Categorization ? Stage 2: Characterization ? Stage 3: Correction Bias ? Fundamental Attribution Error ? Actor/Observer Effect ? Exceptions Bias Fundamental Attribution Error ? Actor/Observer ? Self Centered Bias ? Self Serving Bias ? Naïve Realism ? Dunning Kruger Effect ? Bias ? Heuristics Defined ? Conditions promoting heuristics ? Types ? Heuristics ? Availability What is accessible? ? Frequency/Recency of use? ? ? Representativeness Attention to vivid information ? Ignore base-rate information ? Heuristics continued ? Simulation Heuristic Imagining hypothetical scenarios ? Examples ? Anchoring and Adjustment Using prior experiences Cognitive Experiential Self Theory CEST Implicit Theories of Reality ? Self Theories ? World Theories ? Propositions connecting the two ? Organization of Theories Two Systems ? Rational System ? Experiential System Four Needs of Self System ? Establish and Maintain Positive Sense of Self ? Maximize Pleasure and Minimize Pain ? Accurate Model ? Maintain Relatedness Four Implicit Schemata ? Self Esteem ? World Benevolent/Malevolent ? World Meaningful/Meaningless ? People Trustworthy/Untrustworthy Two Tiered System Produces: ? Explicit Self Esteem—Rational System ? Implicit Self Esteem—Experiential System Two More Important Concepts ? Self Enhancement ? Self Verification A Test 521 Communication Lecture Role Category Questionnaire ? Describe Liked Other ? Describe Disliked Other Cognitive Complexity ? Cognitive Differentiation ? Cognitive Abstractness ? Cognitive Integration Construct Abstractness ? Level One: Physical constructs. Such constructs provide a description of the other’s physical qualities and appearance. ? “She’s short, has brown hair, and brown eyes.’ ? “He’s real skinny and has freckles all over his face.” Construct Abstractness ? ? ? ? Level Two: Social role, demographic, behavioral, and specific interest, ability constructs. Such constructs refer to specific, concrete aspects of the other’s social status, actions and preferences. “She’s a student at this school.” “He’s a good kick-ball player.” “He’s always hitting and pushing other kids.” Construct Abstractness ? ? ? Level Three: Global evaluation and general interest, ability constructs. Such constructs express a general affective evaluation of the other or psychological characteristics of the other relevant only in a specific context. “He’s really intelligent and always does well in school.” “She is a pure WITCH when she is with other women.” Construct Abstractness ? ? ? Level Four: Abstract, psychologically centered constructs. Such constructs refer to general traits, dispositions, and motivations that have implications for the other’s conduct and character. “He’s the kind of person who knows what he wants and will do anything to get it.” “He’s kind and gentle to others due to his pacifist upbringing.” Cognitive Complexity Influences Cognitie Processes ? Abilitiy to Integrate Information in an Impression ? Affective Perspective-Taking Ability Unintegrated Aggregation ? Description of positive and negative traits with no attempt to recognize or explain conflict. ? Thoughtful, Helpful, Brave, Two-faced, Cheater Unintegrated One Sided Emphasis ? Inclusion of only positive or negative traits ? Helpful, Brave, Thoughtful Integration Successive Subordination ? Description is characterized by successive rationalizations. Some information is discounted. ? Many people think that Howard is nice and thoughtful. He really is not. When he behaves this way he is really putting on an act to accomplish his own goals. Integration Superordination ? Description deals with conflicting traits by utilizing a concept or trait that subordinated and explained the conflict, yielding a coherent impression of Howard. ? Example next slide Integration Superordination example ? Howard really cares a great deal about academics. He also wants his friends to care about academics in the same way because he cares about his friends and wants them to live up to their potential and to succeed. Sometimes this leads him to say and do some harsh things with his friends. Affective Perspective Taking ? Children were asked to think of a time their mother/friend asked them to do something they did not want to do or said something that hurt them. ? Child was asked to describe what the other person was thinking/feeling and why they acted the way they did. Logic of Affective Perspective Taking Task ? Assumes that most people see their own actions in a positive light. Real perspective-taking requires suspending your hurt feelings in order to understand the thoughts and feelings of another. Lowest Level of Affective Perspective Taking ? Indicates a failure to suspend evaluation of the hurtful act and almost no awareness of the view of the other. ? ‘Billy is just a big jerk.’ Mid Level of Affective Perspective Taking ? Evaluation of the hurtful act is clearly suspended and an explanation of the act is introduced but in an ambiguous form. ? ‘Billy isn’t very happy right now. Usually, we play together and have fun.’ Highest Level of Perspective Taking The child clearly represents the situation from the other child’s point of view and supplies a clear motivational analysis representing the other child in a favorable light. ‘Billy’s Daddy doesn’t live with Billy and his Mom, now. Billy’s Daddy was supposed to take him to the Zoo this weekend but he didn’t come. He’s pretty upset about that. Usually, we are good friends. He’ll probably apologize at recess.’ ? Cognition Influences Communication ? Cognitive Complexity predicts: Comforting Reflection Enhancing Discipline Listener Adapted Persuasion Listener Adapted Persuasion ? Definition: The extent to which a message is adapted to the unique qualities or beliefs of a listener. ? Levels on following slide ? No Discernable Recognition of the Listener’s Perspective ? Unelaborated Requests ? ? ‘Mommy, can I have someone sleep over on Friday night?’ ‘Could you please take care of this puppy?’ ? Next Implicit Recognition of the Listener’s Perspective ? ? ? Elaboration of necessity, desirability or request from the perspective of a third party. ‘My friends like me a lot and will miss me when I go away to military school. They would like a party and they would like you to have them sleep over’ ‘Would you keep this dog safe so that he won’t run into the street and would you keep it in your house so he won’t be scared by other dogs.’ Explicit Recognition of and Adaptation to the Listeners’ Perspective ? ‘You have been saying that you wanted to get to know my friends. If you let me have a party, you can meet my friends and get to know them.’ ? ‘If I were you and I lived alone, I’d like a good watch dog like this one.’ ? ‘I’d tell her how he might have an owner and if she was in the same situation, if she lost her puppy, she would want someone to take care of it for her.’ Comforting ? Messages intended to relieve the distressed state of another ? Assumptions: Everyday hurts ? Occurs in the context of friendships ? Examples of Comforting Messages ? I) Denial of individual perspectivity–The speaker condemns the feelings that exist in the situation for the person addressed. ? “There is nothing to be upset about–it’s just an old party.’ ? “I’d tell her there have been other parties and that she should be happy about going to them.” Examples of Comforting Messages ? II) Implicit recognition of individual perspectivity–The speaker provides some implicit acceptance of and/or positive response to the feelings of the others, but does not explicitly mention, elaborate, or legitimize those feelings. ? Divert attention ? “When I have a party, I’ll invite you.’ ? “I know your feeling a little down. Hey, lets blow this pop stand and grab a few blue cups at He’s Not Here.’ Examples of Comforting Messages ? II) Implicit recognition of individual perspectivity–The speaker provides some implicit acceptance of and/or positive response to the feelings of the others, but does not explicitly mention, elaborate, or legitimize those feelings. ? Nonfeeling centered explanation of the situation ? “Maybe your invitation got lost in the mail.” Examples of Comforting Messages ? III) Explicit recognition and elaboration of individual perspectivity-Speaker explicitly acknowledges, elaborates, and legitimizes the feelings of the other. . . may include coping strategies used in conjunction with an explication of the other’s feelings. ? “Well, I’d say I understand how he feels, that I’ve done poorly on exams before. It can make you feel bad. But that it is only one test and there will be others. And I’d say that I’ve had classes with Waltman and sometimes he grades on improvement. So, Waltman probably doesn’t think your not capable of getting an ‘A’. You’ve done well on other assignments in his class. And look at your GPA. That is the real reflection of your abilities.’ Reflection Enhancing Discipline ? Verbal discipline messages specifically designed to encourage the child to reflect on the causes and consequences of their misbehaviors and to view those consequences as a reason to change their behavior. ? Discipline designed to teach moral principles. Reflection Enhancing Discipline ? 1. Explicit Discouragement of Reflection. ? ‘I’d tell him to take it back to the store and ground him.’ ‘If you ever take anything from the store again I’ll blister your bottom.’ Taking people’s things is wrong. Now apologize.’ ? ? Implicit Encouragement of Reflection ? ‘Stealing is wrong. It is against the law and you can end up in jail.’ ? ‘As a child you have to go to school. It is a job like I have a job. Now get your clothes on or you’ll be late.’ Explicit Encouragement of Reflection ? ‘First I’d get him to tell me why he called his friend a name like that. You know, talk about why he felt that way. He’s had names thrown at him, in fact not long ago. I’d ask him how he felt when it happened and tell him his friend felt the same way. If he wants to have his friend to play with he probably should apologize and tell his friend why he did it. Is that what he wants ? Another Example of Explicit Encouragement ? So, you just took the truck away from you little brother because you wanted to play with it? Do you remember how you felt last week when the older boys from down the street took your wagon? That did not feel good. You cried, right? Well that is how your little brother feels right now. So what do you think you should do? Communication Influences Cognition ? Reflection Enhancing Discipline predicts ? Cognitive Complexity ? Resistance to Temptation Moral Reasoning ? Sophisticated Comforting ? Identity Management ? Positive Face—The extent to which strategies allow the other to maintain a positive/desired self-image. ? Autonomy Granting Strategies—The extent to which statements allow the persuadee the freedom to determine their own desired selfimage and behavior Positive Face ? 1. Speaker threatens positive face by criticizing or condemning the other person. ? ‘Who do you think you are? You party and drink too much and when you drink you have the mouth of a ______ clock and the brain of a retarded chicken.’ Positive Face ? 2. Strategies that acknowledge positive features of the persuadee but balance both threatening and supportive statements. ? ‘You’re a good friend but this being late all the time is threatening to mess up our friendship and our jobs.’ Positive Face ? 3. Strategies that directly approve of the persuadee’s positive face by providing approval, praise, and liking. ? ‘You’ve been doing a heck of a job and your pulling more than your fair share of the load. Listen I have a problem that I’m hoping you can help me with . . .’ Autonomy Granting ? 1. Deny the autonomy through overt use of power inherent in the speaker’s role. ? ‘Be here on time or I’ll report you to the boss and you’ll be fired.’ Autonomy Granting ? 2. Strategies that implicitly acknowledge the ability of the persuadee to reason through the situation and grant him/her freedom to act. ? ‘If you keep up this partying it will hurt your grades.’ Autonomy Granting ? 3. Strategies that explicitly acknowledge the persuadee by encouraging him/her to come to their own conclusions about needed actions. ? ‘I know I’m not your mother and I can’t make you do anything but think about the kind of relationship you want us to keep here.’ Self Presentations ? Beliefs about self that we ask others to accept. ? Manage our own impressions. Interaction Involvement ? Degree to which people are engaged, cognitively and behaviorally, in their conversations with others. ? Involved interactants are more aware of the demands of the situation and respond appropriately to others. ? Uninvolved interactants are more preoccupied with their own thoughts. Interaction Involvement ? 7-point scale (Not at all like me; Very much like me) ? I am keenly aware of how others perceive me during my conversations. I am very observant of others’ reactions while I’m speaking. Often in conversations I will pretend to be listening, when in fact I was thinking about something else. ? ? Verbal Aggressiveness ? A personality trait that predisposes persons to attack the self-concepts of other people instead of, or in addition to, their topics of communication. ? Teasing, ridicule, profanity, character attacks, insults ? Outcomes: anger, embarrassment, hurt feelings Verbal Aggressiveness ? 5-point scale (1=Almost never true; 5=Almost always true) ? When I attack persons’ ideas, I try not to damage their self concepts. ? When people behave in ways that are in poor taste, I insult them in order to shock them into proper behavior. Verbal Aggressiveness ? I refuse to participate in arguments when they involve personal attacks. ? When individuals insult me, I get a lot of pleasure out of really telling them off. ? I like poking fun at people who do things which are very stupid in order to stimulate their intelligence. Argumentativeness ? Trait Argumentativeness—General tendency to approach/engage arguments. ? Operationalized: ? Trait argumentativeness = Approach Argumentativeness (ARGap) – Tendency to avoid arguments Argumentativeness ? Associated with: ? 1. Employee satisfaction with work communication. 2. Effective upward communication 3. Skillful argumentation 4. Success in college 5. Perceived as dynamic communicators ? ? ? ? Argumentativeness—Tendency to approach items ? 1=almost never true of me; 5=almost always true of me ? I am energetic and enthusiastic when I argue. I enjoy a good argument over a controversial issue. I enjoy defending my point of view on an issue. I feel refreshed and satisfied after an argument. ? ? ? Argumentativeness — avoidance ? ? ? ? ? I prefer being with people who rarely disagree with me. I enjoy avoiding arguments. When I finish arguing with someone I feel nervous and upset. I try to avoid getting into arguments. I find myself unable to think of effective points during an argument. Receiver Apprehension ? Listening anxiety to inhibits one’s ability to adequately (and accurately) decode messages. ? Associated with: Physiological arousal during listening ? Lower apprehension as receivers than as sources ? Receiver Apprehension Test ? 5=strongly agree, 1=strongly disagree ? I often feel uncomfortable when listening to others on the phone. I often have difficulty concentrating on what others are saying. Receiving new information makes me feel restless. ? ? Applications to Social Cognition? 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