CHAPTER 2 Perception of Self What is Self-Concept? ‘Self-concept is a relatively stable and organized collection of thoughts and feelings about the self, which lead to attitudes and drive behaviour. ‘Self-concept begins to form at six or seven months of age, when children see themselves as separate and different from others. Four Faces of Self-Concept 1. 2. 3. 4. Self-image -how we see ourselves Looking-glass self -how we think others see us Ideal self -how we would like to be Real self -how we actually are When these four faces reveal different pictures of self, they cause problems. Self-Image: How We See Ourselves Two Ideas related to Self-Concept: Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy ‘Self-esteem is how we perceive our overall sense of worth or value. ‘Self-efficacy is our perceived ability to accomplish something or to make a difference. Writing our Life Scripts: The Role of Inner Voice ‘The inner voice is important for o developing storylines to guide us through life, complete with characters, plots, settings, and action o getting ideas from first-hand and second-hand experiences and memories o understanding that life scripts can be positive or negative in their unfolding Validating our Life Scripts by Comparing Ourselves to Others ‘We can look upward or downward for role models ‘We can experience assimilation effects (greater self-esteem and self-efficacy when we see ourselves as able to achieve ideal) ‘We can experience contrast effects (lower feelings of self-esteem and self-efficacy when we see ourselves as unable to achieve ideal) Reference Groups Reference groups -those demographic and psychographic groups with which we compare ourselves We may or may not hold membership in the groups, and the membership can be formal or informal. There are several kinds of reference groups: ones to which we may belong, ones to which we may only aspire, or ones that we avoid or reject. Dewar’s Profiles: Reference Groups Home: Hampton, Virginia Age: 28 Profession: Physicist Hobbies: Ballet, sailing, car racing, chess Last book read: Beyond Freedom and Dignity Last accomplishment: Member of the team of international scientists who are mapping earth’s electromagnetic field for the first time Quote: ‘Scientific research in all fields has been a prime contributor to America’s greatness. Let us not forget this in our concern for the dying environment. . . .’ Profile: Brilliant, beautiful, in love with life. Involved an unintimidated by difficult challenges. Saluted by New Woman as one of the 26 women ‘who made it big in their twenties.’ Scotch: Dewar’s ‘White Label.’ Dewar’s Profiles: Reference Groups Age: 43 Home: Santa Monica, California Profession: Computer wizard. Chairman and CEO. Peter Norton Computing. Hobby: Making contributions to L.A.’s many art museums. ‘When life hands you a large slice of the pie, you share.’ Last book read: Don Quixote, Miguel de Cervantes. Latest accomplishment: Seeing his name in lights. At the Museum of Neon Art where he’s on the board of directors. Quote: ‘I can’t believe my life is happening to me.’ Profile: Quiet, committed and independent. ‘Not really, I’m just your classic nerd who got lucky.’ His Scotch: Dewar’s ‘White Label’ with water. ‘It’s as much of a splash as I’ll ever make.’ Dewar’s Profiles: Reference Groups Home: New York City Age: 34 Profession: Architect/Urban designer Hobbies: Graphic art, tennis, people Most memorable book: Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina Latest accomplishment: Headed the urban design group which devised a plan to preserve and revitalize New York’s Little Italy.’ Quote: ‘To an urban designer, a good urban environment is one which gives us a sense of place, joy, & freedom of choice.’ Profile: Sophisticated. Persuasive. Concerned about how the urban environment affects the people who live in it. Scotch: Dewar’s ‘White Label.’ Four Faces of Self-Concept 1. 2. 3. 4. Self-image -how we see ourselves Looking-glass self -how we think others see us Ideal self -how we would like to be Real self -how we actually are When these four faces reveal different pictures of self, they cause problems. Looking Glass Self: How We Think Others See Us ‘Views of self are influenced by how we think others see us, including significant others, who may or may not see us in this way. ‘Significant others are people whose opinions matter to us. How Expectations of Others Influence Expectations of Self ‘Self-fulfilling prophecy refers to way by which expectations of others can influence expectations of self. ‘We live up—or down—to these expectations. Examples of Significant Others Who Influence Expectations of Self ‘Parents, other family members, & friends ‘Peers ‘Teachers ‘Coaches ‘Caregivers and health care providers ‘Managers How Expectations of Parents and Peers Influence Expectations of Self ‘First-born children receive different messages from their parents; as a result, they tend to outstrip later-born children when it comes to achievements. ‘Parents with positive self-concept tend to communicate positive messages to children, and parents with low self-concept tend to communicate negative messages. ‘Children place a great deal of weight on the opinions of peers, who influence how they see their physical, academic, and social abilities; bullying (including cyberbullying) is one of greatest risks to children. ‘Children with low self-esteem experience more failures in relationships as they age. How Expectations of Romantic Partners Influence our Self-Concept ‘Most often people in romantic partnerships see each other in idealized ways, often better than the person sees himself/herself. ‘But if one person has low self-esteem, the higher esteem partner may eventually come to see his/her partner in the same way; their expectations will diminish. ‘Insecurity, low self-esteem, and lack of trust on part of one partner are hard on a relationship. ‘When someone feels they are not good enough, out of fear of rejection, they often sabotage relationships that could bring more positive outcomes. ‘People with negative self-image actively seek partners who will give negative feedback. How Expectations of Teachers, Coaches, and Care Providers Influence Expectations of Self ‘In classrooms, the expectations of teachers affect student performance. ‘In sports, the expectations of coaches influence the performance of athletes. ‘In health care settings, the messages of caregivers and health care providers have an impact on the well-being of those with health and mobility challenges. How Expectations of Managers Influence Expectations of Self ‘Classical studies show that the expectations of managers have a large impact on employee performance. ‘Compared to men, women pass up more advanced job opportunities, anticipate more problems, and experience greater fear of failure—all of which can lead supervisors to expect less and undervalue their performance. Four Faces of Self-Concept 1. 2. 3. 4. Self-image -how we see ourselves Looking-glass self -how we think others see us Ideal self -how we would like to be Real self -how we actually are When these four faces reveal different pictures of self, they cause problems. The Ideal Self: The Role of the Media The Media as a Source of Social Comparisons ‘Many people turn to the media (books, magazines, TV) for role models with whom to compare themselves. ‘These comparisons are often unfavorable for the average person, since the media perpetuate a myth of perfection— the idea of flawless, ageless beauty. ‘The myth of perfection says that it is both possible and desirable to achieve perfection. Myth of Perfection Dominant Messages ‘Physical attractiveness is important. ‘To be physically attractive, you must be young. Young is beautiful. ‘To be physically attractive, you must be thin. Thin is beautiful. Young is Beautiful Thin is Beautiful: Top 10 Runway Models, Spring/Summer 2020 Vogue’s Top 15 Runway Models, 2020 The All-Too-Frequent Price of Being a Runway Model How Do the Media Convey these Standards of Perfection? ‘The women who populate television, films, magazines, social media, and music videos typically reflect this obsession with thinness. ‘Directors and casting agents tell women to lose weight. ‘Journalists and commentators praise celebrities who are thin and poke fun at those who do not reflect the ‘look.’ It Wasn’t Always Like This How Times Change Miss America Competitions Since first competition in 1921, beauty contestants have become taller and thinner as bust and hip sizes have decreased. Image to left was Miss America 1921. Miss America – 1937 Miss America – 1955 Miss America – 1970 Skipping Forward: Miss America – 2018 Miss Universe, 2016 What is the Impact? ‘The Miss USA Pageant never fails to make me hate myself even more than I did before.’ Comment by blogger Jennie Wren (hip-hippoohray) Body Satisfaction: Questions for Self-Reflection ‘Have you been on a weight-loss diet in the past three months? ‘Have you been trying to improve your physique by lifting weights? ‘Are you satisfied with your body weight and/or appearance? ‘Do you feel pressured to some degree to conform to expectations set by the media (e.g., to look more like celebrities and models)? What are the Health Impacts of Repeated Media Exposure? Repeated exposure to unrealistic media images often results in a three-step process: 1. We tend to underestimate the weight of the media personalities and overestimate our own weight. 2. These unfavorable comparisons lead to body image disturbance or dissatisfaction. 3. Body image disturbance leads to lower self-esteem and sometimes obsessive dieting and eating disorders. Who Is at Risk? ‘Almost everyone, but especially: o Those who are already dissatisfied with their bodies o Those who already have eating disorders o Pregnant women o Those influenced by peer pressures—e.g., young females and teenagers, including a growing number of young males o Some middle-aged and older women who receive daily messages regarding anti-aging products What Are the Facts? Results of Studies ‘Only one-third of adolescent girls choose ideal bodies that match their own. ‘Two-thirds of young women are unhappy with their bodies. ‘One-quarter of female readers of Psychology Today said they would give up three years of their life to be their ideal weight. ‘According to recent research by Dove, only 4% of women see themselves as beautiful; yet 80% say there is something beautiful in all women (just not in themselves). ‘Almost 46 per cent of high school students said they were trying to lose weight. ‘Eating disorders accounted for more than 5200 hospitalizations in Canada between 2009 and 2010. Body Image and Eating Disorders Role Models for Expectant Mothers? The term pregorexia refers to the growing number of pregnant women who expect to remain slim and fit while pregnant. Not Exempt: One-third of young men also experience body dissatisfaction; they worry more about muscle bulk than weight. All about Muscle New Threats in the Environment ‘Social media poses new threats, rendering impressions of ‘normality’—illusion that images are not professional, altered or photoshopped on Instagram or Tumblir. ‘Celebrities continue to gain traction on social media. ‘New celebrities are created daily on Instagram, with an emphasis on appearance and images, making some say that it is the most dangerous of the social media. New Threats (cont.) “She has millions of followers because she’s beautiful. I want to be beautiful like her. I want her life.” And so the cycle of body shaming, eating disorders, and low self-esteem continues not only with movies, magazines, and ads, but with a new culprit: social media. Let’s start that conversation.’ Source: Odysseyonline.com Four Faces of Self-Concept 1. 2. 3. 4. Self-image -how we see ourselves Looking-glass self -how we think others see us Ideal self -how we would like to be Real self -how we actually are When these four faces reveal different pictures of self, they cause problems. Questions for Self Reflection ‘Real You’: How Do You Feel about Yourself ? 1. I see others as having more good than bad qualities. 2. I think that others accept and see good qualities in me, as well. 3. I think my performance is good most of the time. 4. I am okay with having people watch me when I am working. 5. I am not afraid of being judged or found lacking. 6. I accept criticism, but I will defend myself against unfair comments. 7. I work harder when people expect more of me. 8. I am comfortable with people who seem superior to me in some way. The Real You If you responded positively to the questions in the activity, you probably have positive self-esteem. If you responded negatively to the questions, you may need to work on your self-esteem. Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Model ‘Talks about how to get rid of debilitative feelings— those that pull us down. ‘Says we can put positive or negative interpretations on words & actions of others. ‘Says we control these interpretations. ‘Gives example of friend who calls us names as we pass their house versus same friend in mental institution who calls us names. Another Example of Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Model Activating event : My manager has transferred me to another department. Thought or belief: The manager thinks I am incompetent. Feeling: Wounded and angry An Alternative Interpretation, Using Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Model Activating event: My manager transfers me to another position in the organization. Thought or belief: My manager thinks I will have greater opportunities in another position. Consequence: Feelings of pride and selfconfidence Cross-Cultural Variations in Views of Self ‘Differences between people in other countries and North Americans ‘Differences between mainstream and minority cultures in North America ‘Differences in extent to which media influence other cultural groups Cross-Cultural Challenges in Measuring Self-Concept ‘Need to move away from focus on individualism and instrumental behaviours ‘Need to attach stronger value to collective and relationship-oriented qualities ‘Need to take cultural biases into account (e.g., tendency of Japanese to downplay individual accomplishments) ‘Need to take self-serving biases of Westerners into account Revising Life Scripts o Recognize when your reference groups and scripts have become outdated. o Let go of negative scripts and set realistic goals. o Reject the myth of perfection and unrealistic role models. o Take advantage of periods of role transition to revise scripts. o Avoid the negative storylines that can develop with changes in health or aging. Other Tips for Accepting and Moving Beyond Self ‘Recognize that you have more than one identity; focus on other aspects of self when one aspect is challenged. ‘Engage in positive self-talk if some aspects of your self-concept appear to be threatened. ‘If your ego is too ‘noisy,’ aim for balance in selfconcept. ‘Celebrate and learn from differences. ‘Believe in positive outcomes. Purchase answer to see full attachment

Mastering the Art of Online Learning: Your Guide to Acing Online Courses

Introduction

In recent years, the popularity of online courses has skyrocketed, offering learners the flexibility to acquire new skills and knowledge from the comfort of their homes. However, succeeding in online courses requires a different approach compared to traditional classroom settings. To help you make the most of your online learning experience, this article presents essential strategies and tips to ace your online courses.

1. Set Clear Goals and Plan Ahead

Before embarking on an online course, establish clear goals and objectives. Determine what you hope to achieve by the end of the course and break down your goals into manageable milestones. Create a study schedule that aligns with your other commitments, ensuring you allocate dedicated time for coursework, assignments, and revision.

2. Create a Productive Study Environment

Establishing a conducive study environment is crucial for online learning success. Find a quiet, well-lit space where you can concentrate without distractions. Remove any potential interruptions, such as notifications from social media or email. Organize your study materials and have a reliable internet connection to ensure seamless access to course materials.

3. Actively Engage in the Course

Active participation is key to mastering online courses. Engage with course materials, including videos, readings, and interactive components. Take comprehensive notes, highlighting key concepts and ideas. Participate in discussion boards, forums, and virtual meetings to interact with instructors and peers, fostering a sense of community and enhancing your understanding of the subject matter.

4. Manage Your Time Effectively

Online courses offer flexibility, but it’s essential to manage your time wisely to avoid falling behind. Create a detailed schedule, allocating specific time slots for coursework, assignments, and studying. Break down larger tasks into smaller, manageable segments to prevent procrastination. Prioritize tasks based on deadlines and dedicate focused time to each one, ensuring consistent progress throughout the course.

5. Develop Effective Communication Skills

Online courses often rely on written communication, making it crucial to hone your skills in this area. Be concise and clear in your written responses, paying attention to grammar and spelling. Actively participate in discussions, asking thoughtful questions and providing constructive feedback to your peers. Regularly check your course emails and notifications, ensuring you stay updated with any important announcements or changes.

6. Utilize Available Resources

Take full advantage of the resources provided by your online course platform and instructors. Familiarize yourself with the learning management system (LMS) and explore its features. Access supplementary materials, such as textbooks, lecture slides, and external resources recommended by instructors. Utilize online libraries, research databases, and tutorial services to deepen your understanding of the subject matter.

7. Stay Motivated and Engaged

Maintaining motivation throughout an online course can be challenging, particularly when faced with competing priorities or a lack of face-to-face interaction. Set short-term goals and reward yourself upon their completion. Connect with fellow learners through virtual study groups or online forums to foster a sense of camaraderie. Regularly remind yourself of the benefits and personal growth associated with completing the course successfully.

8. Seek Support and Clarification

Don’t hesitate to seek support or clarification when needed. Reach out to your instructors for guidance or clarification on course material. Utilize online discussion forums to ask questions or engage in collaborative problem-solving. Leverage the support services provided by your course platform or institution, such as technical support or academic advising.

Conclusion

Online courses present unique opportunities for self-paced learning and personal growth. By setting clear goals, creating a productive study environment, actively engaging with course materials, and managing your time effectively, you can maximize your chances of acing online courses. Remember to stay motivated, seek support when needed, and make the most of the available resources. Embrace the flexibility and adaptability of online learning to achieve your educational goals.