Final paper, students are required to write a minimum five-page paper (not including title, references, or abstract). See Legislation paper Instructions for details
Running Head: AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 1
Air Pollution in the United States: History, Health Impacts, and Public Policy
Student Name
National University
AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 2
Air Pollution in the United States: History, Health Impact, and Public Policy
Introduction
Clean air is vital in protecting the health of the public. The negative health effects of air
pollution are numerous; particulate matter < 10 microns in diameter (PM10) are responsible for increased risk of upper respiratory tract problems and nasal irritation. The most dangerous type of pollutants, those less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5), penetrate further into the respiratory tract, greatly increasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, cancer, asthma, and many other ailments (American Heart Association, 2015). Air pollution of PM2.5 has been shown to be the leading environmental risk factor for all disease in the United States (Tessum et al., 2019, p. 6001). Other toxins, generated mainly from the burning of fuels such as wood, coal, oil, and gasoline, include black carbon, ozone gas, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. These pollutants contribute to the development of several diseases, including bronchitis, hypertension, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Environmental Defense Fund, N.D.). Exposure to air pollutants are especially dangerous to children, as their growing lungs and elevated air intake make them especially vulnerable to asthma and other respiratory disease throughout their life (American Lung Association, 2019). Pregnant women are also at heightened risk of complications from exposure to dirty air; pollution, especially when the particulate matter is < PM2.5, is shown to correlate with low birth weight and preterm birth (Stieb, Chen, Eshoul & Judek, 2012, p. 100). History of Air Quality in the United States Several major pollution events have occurred in this country which ultimately led to government interventions through policy and legislative action. Many of these events have been AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 3 caused by sudden temperature inversions, a meteorological phenomenon in which the normal gradient of cold and warm air is reversed, causing cool air to become trapped under a layer of warm air (Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, N.D.). This process results in heavily polluted air being trapped near the ground, where it wreaks havoc on the health of the population. One such event occurred in 1948 in Donora, PA, where emissions from a zinc smelting plant engulfed the town, killing 20 and causing more than 1,400 of the 14,000 residents to seek medical treatment. This event was the worst air pollution disaster in U.S. history at the time (Boisoneault, 2018). During the week of Thanksgiving in 1966, a similar event occurred in New York City, lasting almost the entire week, causing at least 168 deaths, with other estimates as high as 400 deaths (Holzworth, 1972, p. 445). Three years later, during the weekend after the first moon landing in 1969, sulfur dioxide released from industrial plants in Gary, IN and East Chicago caused a widespread acid rain storm which killed wildlife, destroyed lawns, and caused trees to lose their leaves. Although no deaths were reported from the storm, there may have been long-term effects on the health of the residents of the area (Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, N.D.). Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, massive smog episodes repeatedly shrouded Los Angeles, CA in dense clouds of dangerous polluted air. These episodes often lasted for weeks at a time, exposing the public to enormous amounts of dangerous toxic particulates (Masters, 2011). These events, in addition to several others, led some local and state authorities to attempt to control pollution through public policy. However, without universal federal standards, controlling pollution and industrial emissions was extremely difficult. Air quality issues, in part, led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency by the Richard Nixon Administration in 1970 (Rothman, 2017). The goal of this new agency was to protect the health of both the American population and the natural environment by setting AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 4 federal standards; these standards were meant to provide a cleaner, healthier environment for the American people (Environmental Protection Agency, 2019a). Disparities in Air Quality Since the industrial revolution, there have been socioeconomic and racial disparities in exposure to industrial air pollution. As of today, more than 130 million Americans live in areas with air quality below the levels deemed by the EPA as acceptable (Li, Konisky & Zirogiannis, 2019, p. 2). Due to the fact that the heaviest amounts of pollutants are concentrated in industrial zones, there are ethnic and racial disparities in the levels of exposure to poor air. One national study, which attempted to assign the pollution burdens and pollution advantages of different national demographics, found that Black and Hispanic Americans suffer pollution burdens of 56% and 63% respectively, while non-Hispanic Whites enjoy a pollution advantage of at least 17% over both groups. The study acknowledges that while overall pollution exposure has declined significantly of the last several decades for all three demographics, the disparity in exposure remains significant (Tessum et al., 2019, 6005). While some of the elevated pollution exposure is due to ethnic minorities disproportionately residing in urban areas, which have higher vehicle exhaust, this does not account for all of the existing disparities. A study which examined NO2 levels throughout all 50 states found that, even in suburban and rural environments, minority populations were still exposed to pollutants at far higher rates than whites. In all settings (urban, suburban, rural), nonwhites are exposed to 38% higher concentrations of NO2 than whites. With 87 million non-white residents in the U.S., this higher exposure results in ~7,000 more deaths from ischemic heart disease annually in minority populations (Clark, Millet & Marshall, 2014, p. 2). AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 5 Other factors act as determinants of average exposure to pollutants as well. Those who live below the poverty line have more than 3% higher average exposure, including higher exposure to 11 of the 14 most dangerous pollutant particulates. Those without a high school education have about a 10% higher rate of exposure than those with college educations, including 13 of the 14 worst particulates. Those who are unemployed have about 2.3% greater overall PM2.5 exposure than those who are employed (Bell & Ibisu, 2012, p. 1701-1702). Legislation Attempts to control pollution at the federal level began in the mid 1950s with the first Act Pollution Control Act of 1955. While it was an important early step in the fight against pollution, the bill focused more on gathering information and researching the impacts of pollution on health. The act did not set national emissions standards, mainly because congress believed that those issues should be left to the states and local municipalities (Schnelle Jr, Dunn & Ternes, 2015, p. 164). This legislation was followed by the initial Clean Air Act of 1963 and the Air Quality Act of 1967; however, similar to the first legislation, these did not set national standards for emissions. They did set guidelines and address interstate transportation of pollutants, but it was not until the landmark Clean Air Act of 1970 that major improvements were made. This legislation finally addressed the enormous amounts of toxic pollutants being released into the air. 42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970), the Clean Air Act, set regulations for emissions for both stationary and mobile emissions that each state would be required to meet. The ultimate goal of the legislation was to achieve safe national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) and establish implementation plans for each state to meet these standards (Environmental Protection Agency, 2019b). Small updates were made to the law in 1977, but the next major milestone in pollution control was in 1990, when several amendments were added AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 6 to the Clean Air Act. These amendments expanded the authority of the federal government to enforce the regulations on emissions, addressed the issue of acid deposition into the atmosphere, and added nearly 200 new toxins to the list of controlled pollutive substances. These measures all but eliminated acid rain in the U.S., massively reduced ground-level ozone gasses, and are considered a pivotal moment in reducing airborne toxins and improving public health (Manufacturers of Emission Control Association, 2020). Effects of Legislation on Public Health, Exposure Disparities, and Economic Burden It is difficult to determine the exact number of lives saved by any air pollution legislation; however, EPA estimates are that since the inception of the initial Clean Air Act, millions of lives have been saved due to improvements in air quality. It is believed that in 2011, 160,000 deaths were prevented, and that by our current year, 2020, more than 230,000 lives annually will be saved by reductions in air pollution (Tucker, 2011). While these numbers could be up for debate, the actual reduction in pollution is not. Just some of the positive impacts of the legislation were: ground level ozone reduced by more than 25%, a reduction in sulfur dioxide (the causative agent of acid rain) by more than 70%, air mercury levels reduced by more than 45%, and lead air pollution reduced by more than 90% (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2012). All of these reductions have amounted to an enormous rise in productivity and value to the United States economy. The cost of establishing and enforcing the regulations of the legislation are estimated to represent about 3% of the total economic benefits. This means that while the annual costs of enforcement has remained between $20-25 billion since 1970 (Holladay, 2011), the benefit to the national economy is estimated to be as high as $27.6 trillion during the same time period (Yang, Matus, Paltsev & Reilly, 2005, p. 22). Although there have been significant gains made in reducing gross particulate emissions, pollution continues to be a serious economic AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 7 burden; it is estimated that in 2014, pollution accounted for a 5% hit to the GDP, or about $790 billion (Robinson, 2019). This economic burden is mostly attributed to loss of worker productivity due to illness, medical costs, and years of life lost (YLL). While racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic inequalities certainly still exist in 2020 in regard to air pollution exposure, there have been major improvements in these disparities. Research released just this year has found that ambient particulate pollution PM2.5 in African American communities is now nearly on par with white communities, and that communities with majority African American residents have actually seen a greater reduction in PM2.5 pollution than in any other population since regulations were established (Currie, Voorheis & Walker, 2020). The researchers specifically credit the Clean Air Act as the biggest contributor to these disparity reductions, attributing 60% of the pollution decline to the measures in this legislation. Satellite imagery from 2014 has also shown improvements in pollution levels across the entire country, including regions with large minority populations. While there are still large collections of particulates in some regions of the country, they are mainly over large metropolitan areas, affecting all residents, both urban and suburban (Main, 2014). Conclusion While air pollution continues to burden the United States in many ways, great strides have been made in the battle. Work still needs to be done to decrease emissions, especially of PM2.5 materials, but legislation such as the Clean Air Act have caused significant improvements in air quality throughout the country. The focus going forward must be on continuing to address the pollution exposure disparities in underserved communities, including minority communities and those stricken with high poverty/low socioeconomic challenges. It has been shown repeatedly since 1970 that every dollar invested in research, regulation, and enforcement of air AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 8 quality standards yields far greater value to the health and prosperity of the nation, and investment into these matters must continue to be a priority at the federal level. AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 9 References American Heart Association. (2015, July 31). Air pollution and heart disease, stroke. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/consumer-healthcare/what-is-cardiovascular- disease/air-pollution-and-heart-disease-stroke American Lung Association. (2019, April 17). Children and air pollution. Retrieved from https://www.lung.org/our-initiatives/healthy-air/outdoor/air-pollution/children-and-air- pollution.html Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (N.D.) Temperature inversions impact air quality. Retrieved from https://legacy.azdeq.gov/environ/air/ozone/Inversion%20Info.pdf Bell, M. L., & Ebisu, K. (2012). Environmental inequality in exposures to airborne particulate matter components in the United States. Environmental health perspectives, 120(12), 1699-1704. Boisoneault, L. (2018, October 26). The deadly Donora smog of 1948 spurred environmental protection- but have we forgotten the lesson? Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/deadly-donora-smog-1948-spurred- environmental-protection-have-we-forgotten-lesson-180970533/ Clark, L. P., Millet, D. B., & Marshall, J. D. (2014). National patterns in environmental injustice and inequality: outdoor NO 2 air pollution in the United States. PloS one, 9(4), e94431. Currie, J., Voorheis, J., & Walker, R. (2020). What Caused Racial Disparities in Particulate Exposure to Fall? New Evidence from the Clean Air Act and Satellite-Based Measures of Air Quality (No. w26659). National Bureau of Economic Research. AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 10 References (cont.) Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control. (N.D.) A history of air pollution events. Retrieved from http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/DNREC2000/Divisions/ AWM/aqm/education/airqualityappx.pdf Environmental Defense Fund. (N.D.). Health impact of air pollution. Retrieved from https://www.edf.org/health/health-impacts-air-pollution Environmental Protection Agency. (2019, December 19a) EPA history. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/history Environmental Protection Agency (2019, August 15b). Summary of the Clean Air Act. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act Holladay, J. (2011, January). How do we know how much clean air is worth? NYU Institute for Policy Integrity. Retrieved from https://policyintegrity.org/files/publications/Valuing_the_Clean_Air_Act.pdf Holzworth, G. C. (1972). Vertical Temperature Structure During the 1966 Thanksgiving Week Air Pollution Episode. Monthly Weather Review, 100, 445. Li, Z., Konisky, D. M., & Zirogiannis, N. (2019). Racial, ethnic, and income disparities in air pollution: A study of excess emissions in Texas. PloS one, 14(8), 1-16. Main, D. (2014, June 27). Satellite images show massive reduction in US air pollution. Popular Science. Retrieved from https://www.popsci.com/article/science/satellite-images-show- massive-reduction-us-air-pollution/ AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 11 References (cont.) Manufacturers of Emission Control Association. (2020). The Clean Air Act. Retrieved from http://www.meca.org/regulation/the-clean-air-act Masters, N. (2011, March 17). L.A.s smoggy past, in photos. KCET. Retrieved from https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/las-smoggy-past-in-photos Robinson, E. (2019, September 19). How much does air pollution cost in the U.S.? Stanford University School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences. Retrieved from https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-much-does-air-pollution-cost-us#gs.vbxjtb Rothman, L. (2017, March 22). Heres why the Environmental Protection Agency was created. Time Magazine. Retrieved from https://time.com/4696104/environmental-protection- agency-1970-history/ Schnelle Jr, K. B., Dunn, R. F., & Ternes, M. E. (2015). Air pollution control technology handbook. CRC press. Stieb, D. M., Chen, L., Eshoul, M., & Judek, S. (2012). Ambient air pollution, birth weight and preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental research, 117, 100- 111. Tessum, C. W., Apte, J. S., Goodkind, A. L., Muller, N. Z., Mullins, K. A., Paolella, D. A., ... & Hill, J. D. (2019). Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racialethnic disparities in air pollution exposure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(13), 6001-6006. AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 12 References (cont.) Tucker, C. (2011, May). Number of lives saved by U.S. Clean Air act continues to grow: opponents trying to repeal protections. American Public Health Association. Retrieved from http://thenationshealth.aphapublications.org/content/41/4/1.3 Union of Concerned Scientists. (2012, February 1). The Clean Air Act. 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